Calrissian.com	Final Year Project : My last project took me a fair few months to complete. In retrospect i am still happy with it. I realised at the time when i devised it, that the examiners would not look too happily at the topic i was curious to investigate. After all, it was somewhat of a novel idea/pet theory of mine. It certaintly was'nt a standard area of investigation - i never did stick to convention. I was awarded a 'C' grade for this, which i thought was a bit tough, even considering the nature of the subject i decided to test out. Anyway, here it is, my final year project from my science degree.. Index : 1. Project Write-up            2. Colour Test Materials            3. Personality Test Forms               4.  Disclaimer form Return to Project Home * Note that these materials are quite long, and will take a while to download.
Psychology
Personal Area
Career

Colour Preference as Symptomatic of Personality Type

Abstract

The aim was to investigate colour preference and personality type. A sample of 43 took part in an experiment, based upon the work of Lüscher (1949) who originally produced a colour test to determine personality type. A correlational design was used, being within subjects, colour preference data was nominal, colour swatch data was ratio, and personality data were ordinal.  It was predicted that for visual stimuli where the hue and saturation are consistent, a person with a high score for the dimension extroversion, would significantly choose the more illuminated colour stimuli, than a person with a low extroversion score. A three part questionnaire was issued to each subject, comprising of two colour preference sections,  and 60 personality items. Results did not support the overall concept that colour is symptomatic of personality type. The primary test of correlating the preferred colour swatch shade with the  extroversion score produced  r=0.197, with p<0.108 and was not significant. It is concluded that although no link was apparent between colour preference and personality, the significant results of the inter-swatch correlations provide the basis for further research.

Introduction

The perception of colour is an important and powerful psychological phenomena. The conscious sensation of colour can have a profound effect on human emotions. A brief foray into the work of the world’s most notable poets and painters for instance, would highlight how great an impact colour can have on the artist or painter. Some colours can evoke a greater sense of psychological calm, whereas others can enliven the individual to greater activity. Such a belief is widespread in the modern industry of western society. Consumer products are coloured according to the wealth of information already established about human colour preference. For example, food and drinks are only very rarely coloured blue, whereas household cleaning fluids are frequently blue in colour. Many would agree that the thought of eating blue coloured food is quite distasteful, even though such a person may realise there is no logical reason not to. In this case, one underlying explanation could be of survival. Edible items that are blue in nature may well be poisonous – an inherent trait of some plants, and such an anti-blue predisposition to blue food, could be explained by way of Darwinian natural selection processes. The humans of today could conceivably possess a broad array of colour preferences, which have been acquired through the slow but consistent processes of selection.  

      Colour itself can be said to be comprised of three dimensions. The ‘hue’ is the actual colour – such as ‘blue’, and this is dependent on the wavelength of the light. Although as Dawkins (1998) noted, the various colour labels we use – such as ‘crimson red’ or ‘sea blue’, as designated are entirely arbitrary.    The brightness (also called illumination) depends upon the intensity of the stimulus. Saturation is the relative amount of a hue, for instance the percentage of yellow relative to white.

   The perception of the wide range of colours that result from neural impulses is a remarkable conscious perception (see Hubel, 1995). Colour sensations are totally subjective, a result of the light reflected which ranges in wavelength from about 380-760 nanometres (Shiffman, 1996). Individuals can vary (sometimes greatly) in their ability to perceive the typical range of colours. Indeed, some people fail to perceive colour at all. The effect of losing colour vision – a result of cerebral damage or disease, can cause enormous emotional distress. Sacks (1995) documented the case of a painter who lost his colour vision, the case illustrated just how important to the artist, was his sense of colour.

   It is clear that understanding of this curious conscious phenomenon is at quite an advanced stage, and although there remain significant gaps in the neural underpinnings of colour perception, the basic neural mechanisms are well understood (see Logothetis, 1999).    

  The study of personality has similarly progressed at a phenomenal rate during the twentieth century. Today, personality tests are regularly employed in providing reliable and valid information about an individual’s personality. The broad consensus achieved in the early 1990’s (see Mischel, 1993), of five main dimensions to personality, provides further security to the outside observer, that analyses of personality, are increasingly scientifically well grounded. Although even the latest and most refined taxonomy – the five factor ‘Big five’ model, is considered by some, as a crude instrument of measurement (e.g. John, 1990).   

  The question of whether the colour preferences of an individual could provide an insight into their personality has been looked into only sporadically, and what studies that, exist are often yet to be translated for the western scientific community. For instance, colour preference and anxiety have been reported to be correlated (see Dornfeld, 1982). Dornfeld (1982) reported that subjects with high levels of anxiety had a tendency to choose much darker colours. Krishna (1972) found a number of significant differences in colour preference across gender. Further, across a number of age groups, colour preference was found to be identical (Krishna, 1972).     

The notion that colour preference is linked to personality type has indeed received very little attention. However, despite the general disinterest in this area, Max Lüscher has pursued and developed the concept for a number of decades. The first colour test Lüscher developed was composed in 1949, more refined and detailed tests quickly followed. Lüscher's basic premise was that a person’s colour preferences, when ranked in order of preference, would provide much insight into the psychological nature of the individual. A number of key points need to be made at this point. First, Lüscher assumed that particular colours had a direct meaning for all people, “(. . .) [colour meaning] is the same the world over, to young and old alike (. . . ) to the educated and the backward …” (Lüscher, 1969 – p.51). In essence, Lüscher posited that colour meaning was universal to all. Individual differences in how colour might vary in its meaning for people were not a part of Lüscher’s theory. Second, the method of study that Lüscher employed was not a wholly empirical one. It is clear that Lüscher had brought together many ideas -from cultures across the world, of what colour might mean to people, and then formed a colour test, which fitted the theory. For instance, red was believed to represent “(. . .) an energy-expending physiological condition” (Lüscher, 1969, p. 60). Third, with the meanings of each colour at hand, the key to discerning the psychological nature of the subject, was through the actual rank order responses of the person tested. For instance, of eight available colours, the placement of red in the preference league was critical as to how the interpretation was to proceed.             

   A number of problems are clearly apparent. First is the reliance upon complex psychoanalytical interpretations, which, by their very nature, are inherently untestable. Second, is the lack of any real empirical data that was subject to peer group scrutiny. However, despite such drawbacks, the work of Lüscher provides a firm starting point from which to proceed in this investigation.

   The work of Lüscher and others have contributed much to the basic hypothesis that colour preference is a symptom of personality. However, no research is known of, that has yet been conducted, which tested even the basic notion of colour and personality in a truly scientific manner.

   This study’s primary aim will be to test one specific aspect of colour and personality, that of colour illumination and the psychological dimension of extroversion/introversion. For the psychological dimension of extroversion, one fundamental proposal is that the typical extrovert will have a significantly greater requirement for stimulation than an introvert would require. It is predicted that for visual stimuli where the hue and saturation are consistent, a person with a high score for extroversion will significantly choose the more illuminated colour stimuli, than a person with a low extroversion score.

   A two factor correlational design will be used, within subjects, and will use a three part questionnaire. Colour preference will be determined with a forced choice in five colour swatches, with personality scores gained from Likert scale phrases. A secondary overview of colour preference on the other four dimensions of personality – agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and intellect/imagination, will also be carried out. Further, those tested in the study will be queried as to their preferred colour, from ten available options.

Method

Materials

                Each participant was provided with one copy of the questionnaire, refer to appendix 1 for a copy. The questionnaire was comprised of three main sections. Prior to the main sections were attached instructions on  how to complete the questionnaire. Also included on this sheet was a consent form, and two participant statistics were requested, these being age and gender. Section one of the questionnaire comprised ten coloured boxes, each box was 26mm in width, and 19mm in height. Colour in each box was consistent, with no variation in hue, saturation or illumination. Each box was labelled ‘Box’ along with a number ranging from 1 to 10.

   Section two comprised 5 colour swatches. Each swatch was comprised of five boxes, each box of the set of five, was positioned on the same horizontal line as others of the same hue. Each box was 22mm in width, and 13mm in height. For each swatch, the same colour was used, however, the illumination was different for each box of the swatch. The maximum illumination of 255 (equating to 100%) was in the box to the far left, with the lowest illumination in the box to the far right, a figure of 51 (20% equivalent). There were equal increments in the reduction of illumination for each colour swatch of 51 – essentially a reduction of 20% - see figure 1.0.

Figure 1.0: Example of colour swatch

As can be seen, there is a noticeable reduction in illumination running from left to right. The illumination for the boxes in percentage terms- from left to right are 100, 80, 60, 40 , and 20% respectively.

   The colour swatch grey was somewhat different from the other swatches. No hue was relevant to the colour (hue 170 was arbitrarily used), saturation was fixed at 0%, and illumination was as follows. For box 1 (far left),illumination was 200 (equivalent to 78.43%), and this decreased in increments of 33 to an illumination of 68 (26.67%) for box 5 (far right).

   The following section provides precise details on the combination of how the colours red, green, and blue, and yellow altered with the change in illumination, as used in section two.

Details of colour combinations for section 2 of questionnaire

   Illumination was reduced in equal increments for swatches red, blue, green and yellow. Colour saturation was maintained at 130 for swatches red, blue, green, and yellow. The grey swatch maintained a saturation of 0 (zero), for all five boxes. Each combination figure can range from a maximum of 255 to a minimum of 0. In practice then for instance, a red figure of 255 represents 100%, and 127.5 would equate to 50%. The same is  naturally applicable for green, blue, and yellow.  Illumination figures and their equivalent percentages are the same as for the combination figures. Hue numbers refer to the reference number as expressed in most computer paint and word processor software. The colour spectrum in such software has the deepest red at the left of the colour palette, blue in the middle, and returning to a deep red on the right side. The Computer software from which all colour reference numbers were derived from for this research, was Microsoft â Word 2000. 

Tables 1.0 through 1.4 provide details on how the combinations altered in each box of each swatch.

Table 1.0 : Swatch Red

Notes : Hue number : 1

Table 1.1 : Swatch Blue

Notes: Hue number : 130

Table 1.2 : Swatch Green

Notes : Hue number : 90

Table 1.3 : Swatch Yellow

Notes : Hue number : 41

Table 1.4 : Swatch Grey

Notes : No Hue number is applicable for grey, however Hue 170 was arbitrarily used.

   The third and final section of the questionnaire, encompassed 60 short phrases. Each phrase was a member of the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) as formulated by Goldberg (1999). For each item, a Likert scale was employed, with five options available, these being, (1) Very Inaccurate; (2) Quite Inaccurate; (3) Neither Inaccurate nor accurate; (4) Quite Accurate; and (5) Very Accurate. A line with 5 option circles was provided for each item, under the option reference numbers, as to how applicable the phrase was, to the respondent at that moment in time. The 60 questions comprised six sets of ten. All five main factors of the ‘Big Five’ were used, ten items for each. The remaining ten questions were derived from a facet of Factor 1 (Extroversion/Surgency) - the facet being Talkativeness.

   Attached to the questionnaire, post section three, room was made available for participants to note down any thoughts that occurred during their completion of section two ( the colour swatches).

   All sixty IPIP items were derived from the publicly available internet site as published and operated  by Lewis Goldberg. For comprehensive details on the IPIP items (and the very latest research),                see URL http://ipip.ori.org/ipip. 

   For all three sections, each colour box, colour swatch, and all IPIP items were randomly ordered. Each item was drawn at random from a box. All questionnaires retained exactly the same order. 

Procedure

                 Initially, a limited pilot study of ten participants was performed to test for variability in colour swatch responses, and to check for any readability problems in the questionnaire format.

   A standardised procedure was administered to all participants which was as follows. All participants interested in helping with the research, were briefed as to the nature of the investigation. Each potential participant was queried as to if they knew of any colour vision problems which they might have. Unless the person had a concern about their colour vision, a questionnaire would be summarily issued. This briefing detailed the likely duration of the questionnaire, and that the participant would be fully debriefed upon receipt of  the completed questionnaire. Of particular importance and much emphasised was the instruction to complete the questionnaire without the guidance of other people. Of the research itself, participants were informed that it involved questions about colour preferences. No mention was made of the personality section of the questionnaire. Once briefed, all willing participants were provided with one copy of the questionnaire, and their name recorded on a separate sheet. Completion of the questionnaire was done without the presence of the researcher. Upon receipt of the completed questionnaire, each respondent was provided with the opportunity to ask any questions, and was informed fully about the nature of the research and its aim. Further, each respondent was issued with a sheet which detailed in writing the type of research being conducted, and what the researcher was studying. Each participant was also offered the option to later receive a summary of the research results and accompanying conclusions.  

   Once all participant questionnaire were collated, the following was performed. Raw data was entered and coded on a statistical computer software package, where descriptive statistics were calculated. A number of correlations were then carried out, to test the research hypothesis. The Spearman rank order correlation coefficient was calculated for all five colour swatches, against each of the five factors and the facet of factor 1 (extroversion). Further, an inter-swatch correlation was performed to test for cross-colour similarity in responses for section two. 

Design

            A within subjects correlational design was employed, which contained two factors. The factors being colour preference responses, and personality scores. The data types were as follows. For the colour boxes in section  1: nominal, for the colour swatch data: ratio, and for section 3 - the personality phrases: ordinal. With such data, a correlation was considered most appropriate to test the experimental hypothesis. An alpha of .05 was set, and all statistical test were one tail. Two target groups of participants were selected on an opportunity basis. The groups were chosen with the aim of providing a balanced gender and age representation of the general population.

   Section one of the questionnaire was employed in order to provide some broad information on the colour preferences of the sample tested. The ten colours used covered the main standard colours of the visible spectrum, white and black were both included as although arguably not like most colours, are still important in their own right. Of the ten colours used, eight were similarly used by Lüscher – colours orange and white were the two additions to Lüscher’s core colour set. It was decided to provide a narrow range of colours rather than an open question as to the respondents favourite colour, for the reasons that respondents might actually be choosing a colour on its lexical frequency, rather than its actual degree of attractiveness. One final point of note, for each colour box, the actual colour name was not provided – instead a reference number was offered. This was decided for the reason that a colour word might interfere with the selection of the preferred colour. The key aim was to attain a response based purely on visual preference.   

   The second section of the questionnaire which comprised of various colour swatches, was aimed to provide information about the degree of stimulation which the participant inherently sought out – as personality theory (e.g. Eysenck, 1973) has proposed. Five colour swatches were provided, the five colours of red, blue, green, yellow, and grey were chosen for two reasons. First, the three primary colours are very prevalent in the environment. Second, yellow was used as it is a particularly good colour that retains its hue, even when the illumination is particularly low. A grey swatch was used in that it is somewhat unique in being not colourless, but can provide excellent clarity across all increments of illumination. The five swatches, although only testing a minute fraction of the visible spectrum, is aimed to capture a few key colours of the modern environment. For all five swatches, it was decided to maintain both the hue and colour saturation, the independent variable being the degree of illumination of the colour box.

   To capture some variability in the responses, five boxes were used for each swatch. The brightest illumination of 100% was used, and after some initial development, a minimum illumination of 20% was fixed, with increments of 80, 60, and 40% also used.  At illumination levels below 20% the colour box is virtually black, and it was decided that it was important that all five boxes of each swatch to retain the same colour appearance. Finally, it was felt important not to provide even a moderate ‘black’ option, which could conceivably have offered two broad choices, either one shade (from four) of the colour swatch, or the colour black. In summary, the five degrees of illumination were designed to provide both a broad choice for the respondents, yet still maintaining a consistent hue.

   It was decided not to use any frame of reference for the colour swatch preference section. Sinha and Krishna (1980) argued that a frame of reference is necessary for a colour preference test. However, it was deemed that any object or frame of  reference might detract from providing an accurate colour preference. A similar procedure was followed in section one where the colour boxes were labelled by number and not by colour name. What was considered fundamental was to gain as automatic and natural a preference as the respondent could provide.

   The third section of the questionnaire which was comprised of 60 phrases, aimed to provide a solid and reliable measure of the respondent’s personality along five distinct dimensions and one facet of extroversion. Ten items for each dimension were considered adequate to attain a reasonable measure for each dimension and for the single facet. With reference to table 1.5  are details of the Coefficient Alpha reliability estimates for the IPIP items as used in section three of the questionnaire. As can be seen, the reliability estimates range from 0.79 to 0.87, and were considered adequate for the study. A twenty item per dimension personality analysis was considered. However the potential problem of respondent fatigue in answering a further 50 items – in addition to the used 66 main questions, was considered not worth the moderate increase in reliability (typically only 0.05). Ten items were deemed acceptable to gain a reasonable and  reliable measurement for each given factor. The facet of extroversion – talkativeness, was chosen in particular for its relatively high reliability.

Table 1.5 Coefficient Alpha reliability estimates (section 3)

Notes: Total items for each factor and facet = 10.

          * Estimates derived from Goldberg, L. (1999)

   With reference to table 1.6, the coding responses for section 2 can be seen. Refer to appendix 1 for details of  the colour swatches in their questionnaire format.

Table 1.6 Coding details of responses for colour swatches.

Notes: Box 1 was furthest to the left, with box 5 to the far right of the swatch.

   With reference to table 1.7, the coding responses for section 3 can be seen. Refer to appendix 2 for a list of the 60 items in their original format.

Table 1.7 Coding details of responses for IPIP items.

Notes: All options for section 3, were on a 5 point Likert scale.

Participants

                   A total sample of 43 participated in the research. The sample consisted of 7 undergraduate students based at the University of Hertfordshire, and 36 employees of Waitrose Ltd. (Retail industry) based in Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire. The combined sample consisted of 14 males and 29 females. No financial payment was given to any of the participants. Some of the undergraduates were given due time credit for their participation in the research. The average age for the sample was 33.29 years (one omission) with a range of 16-63 years.

Results

   Of the 43 respondents, 40 fully completed all 3 sections of the questionnaire, 3 remaining respondents had some limited omissions, particularly in section 2 of the questionnaire. Of those initially asked if they would complete a questionnaire, one answered yes to the question of colour vision problems.      

   From table 1.8 below, the results of section 1 can be seen. The modal colour of the ten available was blue with 18 of the 43 respondents choosing blue as their preference of the ten. Yellow was chosen by 10 respondents as their preference, with green and purple scoring 4 and 5 respectively. Red, black, and orange were each chosen by two respondents.  Colour boxes white, brown, and grey each had no respondent choose them as their preference.

Table 1.8: Results of section 1 - Preferred colour 1 from 10

Notes: n= 43, no omissions.

   Table 1.9 below list details of the colour swatch responses. The highest mean attained was for swatch yellow, 4.07 (S.D. 1.30). The lowest mean was for swatch grey, 2.93 (S.D. 1.64). In general the means were in the range of  colour illumination 3 to 4 – equating to 60-80% illumination. All colour swatches had a response range of 1-5.

Table 1.9: Group results of Colour swatches

Notes: n=43, limited omissions by two respondents.  A value of 5 was

brightest (100%), 1 being the least illuminated (20%).

   The results of section three (see table 2.0) - the personality items are as follows. For factor 1 (extroversion), a mean of  -2.05 (S.D. 2.97 was attained. For the dimensions agreeableness, conscientiousness, and intellect, the means were -.48 (S.D. 3.90), 2.38 (S.D. 2.48), and –1.12 (S.D. 3.41) respectively. In general the means ranged from -4.14 (talkativeness) to -.12 (emotional stability). As a whole, the lowest minimum total score was -11  attained by the sub-facet talkativeness. The maximum score of 7 was recorded for talkativeness, and the dimensions agreeableness and intellect.

Table 2.0 : Results of IPIP items: Five factor Personality test

Notes: n= 43. limited omissions by 3 respondents. Range for all 5 factors and facet of Factor1 : -20 to 20.

   As noted in table 2.1 are the results of the Spearman Rank correlation coefficient tests. The alpha was set at 0.05, and the tests were one tail in all cases. Two swatch totals were used, Swatchtotal1 comprised the combined score of  swatches red, blue, green, and yellow. Swatchtotal2 comprised

the combined score of all five swatches. First, using the total score of swatch1 correlated with the dimension extroversion, with r = 0.197, resulted in  p< .108 and was not significant. For the factors swatchtotal1 correlated with the facet talkativeness, produced r= 0.097, resulting in p<.271 and was not significant. Also tested was each individual swatch against the facet  extroversion, none were significant. Second, using swatchtotal2, when correlated against the factor extroversion, r=-0.186, resulting in p<.122 and was not significant. Swatchtotal2 correlated against the facet talkativeness produced r=0.169, with p<.142, and was not significant. Also tested were each of the individual swatches with the facet talkativeness, none were found to be significant.

Table 2.1 Results of Spearman Rank correlation

Notes: n=43, limited omissions by two respondents.  Swatchtotal1 comprised the

combined score of  swatches red, blue, green, and yellow. Swatchtotal2 comprised

the combined score of all five swatches.

   From table 2.2 below are the results of the Spearman Rank correlation coefficient for the swatch totals 1 and 2, correlated against the dimensions of agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and intellect. None of the correlations were significant. Both swatch1 and swatch2 totals were  found not to be significantly correlated with either of the four dimensions of agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and intellect.

Table 2.2 Results of Swatch totals correlated with four other dimensions

Notes: n=43, limited omissions by three respondents. Swatchtotal1 comprised the

combined score of  swatches red, blue, green, and yellow. Swatchtotal2 comprised

the combined score of all five swatches.

   As noted in table 2.3 are the results of the inter-swatch correlations. Each of the colour swatches was correlated against all four other colour swatches. An alpha of 0.05 was set, and all test were one tail.

Swatch red was found to be significantly correlated with swatches blue, green, and yellow. However, with r = -0.031, and p<.421, red swatch was not significantly correlated with swatch grey. Blue swatch was significantly correlated with all four swatches. Swatch yellow was significantly correlated with swatches red, blue, green, and yellow. With r = -1.050, resulting in  p<.251, yellow swatch was not significantly correlated with swatch grey. For swatch grey, the only significant correlation with the other four swatches was found with swatch blue, r = -0.288, with p<.030.

Table 2.3 Results of inter-swatch correlations

Notes: N=43 in all cases

Discussion

   The aim of this study was to investigate the colour preferences and personality types of  a sample of the general population. One hypothesis was tested. It was predicted that for visual stimuli where the hue and saturation are consistent, a person with a high score for the personality dimension extroversion, would significantly choose the more illuminated colour stimuli, than a person with a low extroversion score.

   The results of the Spearman rank tests were found not to be significant in all correlations between colour swatch preference and the dimension extroversion. The basic hypothesis of this study has not been supported. 

   There were a number of interesting aspects to the results. First, the sample means for all five factors and the single facet were close to zero, with a range of –4.14 (talkativeness) to -.48 (agreeableness). This is of course supportive of one assumption (and methodological sample aim) that of obtaining a varied and representative sample of the general population. Overall, the means do indicate that the sample is a balanced one. However, the minimum and maximum values of each dimension for the sample were not as wide in range as expected. In fact, the typical maximum highest score of the factors and single facet was only around the 4-7 mark. Clearly, there were no respondents who felt they were quite extroverted, and this may have a bearing on the lack of any significance in the results. Perhaps the colour preference theory might only be displayed in people who score very highly for extroversion, for instance a score of 15 and over. This sample had no one attain even a total score of ten. Similarly, this study’s sample had no particularly low scores. The typical minimum low score of each factor/facet, were in the range of –4 to – 9. Only the factor talkativeness attained a fairly low minimum score of –11,  although the mean was still only –4.14. Clearly, a problem is apparent here. Perhaps only those with scores above +15 and below –15 for each dimension, would show a significant colour preference for either particularly dark or bright colours. To attain such a sample of polarised personality types, a considerably large initial sample would be required, and there are clear efficiency drawbacks to such a method.   

   However, the fact that there was a fair degree of variability between subjects colour swatch preferences, is encouraging. All swatches had responses across the whole range of colour illumination levels, from 100 to 20%. Most individual subjects had some variability in the illumination level they preferred between the swatches. Although the significant inter-swatch correlations suggest that the swatches are measuring the same factor- that of illumination preference. Respondents usually were consistent in the illumination they preferred. The one anomaly was for the grey swatch, as can be seen from the raw data (see appendix 3). For this swatch, respondents often chose quite a different illumination level compared to their preference for swatches red, blue, green, and yellow. In retrospect, two possible reasons might account for this. First, the respondents might have a preference for a virtual black, compared to any level of grey. Many respondents who choose illumination levels of 80-100% for swatches red, blue, green, and yellow, often choose illumination levels of 40-20% for the grey swatch. It is likely that grey is not measuring the same variable as the other four swatches.

   Sinha, Krishna, and Sinha (1970) in a study using adolescents, had colour preference results of (most favourable listed first): red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. This study used ten colours in section one, and the overall sample order of blue, yellow, purple (violet), red, orange, and black, was somewhat quite different from that of Sinha et al (1970). Blue was by far the most  preferred colour of this study – 18 of the 43 respondents (41%) chose this colour as their preference of the ten choices available. Red, which was the favourite in Sinha et al’s (1970) sample, only ranked fifth in this study. Perhaps cultural differences might account for the differences seen here, although it would be useful to re-conduct Sinha et al’s study now – considering the three decades that have elapsed since that study was conducted. With regards to racial differences in colour preference, Basu’s (1949) study involving five distinct Indian groups, suggested that culture may have an important impact on colour preference. This issue of culture and colour preference is one area that certainly merits further study.                  

   One assumption this study made (as did Lüscher) was that colour perception is universal to all people. The work of Rosch (1972) whose work with the Dani of Irian Jaya offered support that colour perception was the same, even if the language of each culture differed, with some languages failing to discriminate between most of the main colours in the spectrum. Yet recently, Davidoff (1999) repeated Rosch’s study and concluded that colour perception is not necessarily universal. Motluk (1999, p. 7) cited Davidoff’s (1999) research, and noted that “People find it easier to distinguish colours if the division corresponds to a linguistic, rather than a supposed universal distinction (. . .).” Davidoff (1999) argued that the cultural effects on colour perception are underestimated. This renewed uncertainty makes it necessary that any cross-cultural comparisons in colour preference be subject to extra caution.

   Some interesting comments were made by respondents in response to the query about how they came to decide which colours they preferred. Some noted that they liked calm colours, as opposed to bright colours. Others said that they like colours which make them feel comfortable. Many respondents replied in terms of visualisations of their home environment, colours that they have chosen to decorate with. A number reported that they like bright, sunny, happy colours. A few respondents felt that ‘instinct’ was the factor that determined their colour preferences, rather than actual conscious choice.

   A few keys aspects have been brought to light by the preceding summary. First, feelings are central to how many respondents chose their preferences. A number of respondents visualised their homes. Clothing was a particularly recurring theme in comments. Preferences were often noted to have been taken on the grounds of what colour that person would feel okay wearing. One clear distinction, and one that often split people into one of two broad groups, was the issue of bright verses dark colours. Some respondents noted they really liked only the darker colours, whereas others replied that they always sought out the brightest shades. Two terms recurred most often in the respondents thoughts section, ‘bright’ and ‘sunny’. This would certainly be consistent with the results of the yellow swatch and the colour choices seen in section one. Yellow was chosen by some ten respondents (second most popular), and the yellow swatch attained the highest mean of 4.07 (S.D. 1.30). Quite a proportion of the sample appear to seek the bright colours, and prefer colours that they ‘feel’ are ‘happy colours’. Clearly, emotion is central to colour preference for many respondents of this study.  

   For future research in this area, a number of steps might easily be taken to further the initial work of this study. First, instead of using a paper questionnaire for the colour swatch preference section, a new medium could be used. The use of visual swatches presented on a computer screen would provide far better differentiation between different illuminations within the same swatch colour. For practical reasons, this study used printed colour copies of the colour swatch stimuli. The printed copies were about the best that the modern laser printers of today can manage, yet the print quality did not entirely capture the different illumination in each swatch. In retrospect, any future research of this nature, should make use of high quality computer display screens. There would also be some financial savings from such a policy.

   Second, a more varied array of colours might be used in the colour preference section. Perhaps retain four main colours – red, blue, green, and yellow, but use a number of different hues of each colour type. There are many shades of red for instance, and using a variety of different hues might provide more refined responses from a sample of the population. Further, the abandonment of swatch grey should certainly be reviewed in light of the inter-swatch correlations.

   A third step forwards might be to test for any differences in colour preference between the factor of ethnicity/culture. The research by Basu (1949) could be furthered with a multi-cultural study in contemporary Britain. Fourth, the interesting replies made by respondents as to how they came to choose their preferences, provides one further possible avenue of research. The issue of ‘happy’ colours could be studied, with an attempt to discern what colours are felt as happy colours, and which are felt as sad colours. Perhaps there are illumination thresholds at which point a colour is said by respondents to become either a bright (or happy) as contrasted to a dark (or sad) colour. One fifth, and final speculative research possibility, is to target and analyse those who are clinically depressed. It would be interesting to see if they viewed colours any differently than the non-depressed. Might the depressed choose more darker colours in a swatch, than the non-depressed ?

     Dornfeld (1982) who looked at anxiety and colour preference, argued that a colour test would be able to supplement the sixteen personality factor questionnaire. This study has not supported this earlier work, however, it is clear from even this study, that people do show a preference in terms of light and darkness, and this is consistent across a number of colours. One of the original hopes of this study was that if a consistent and reliable correlation was detected between the variables colour preference and personality, that personality testing in general could be made significantly more reliable. Dornfeld’s (1982) suggestion that a colour preference test could reinforce the results of a personality test is an important one. The personality tests of today are relatively reliable, yet a reinforcing (and inexpensive) colour test might greatly enhance the instrument used to measure personality. Although this study had no significant results to support such a view, the benefits – as Dornfeld (1982) similarly realised, merit some further basic research into colour preference and personality.

   In summary, the results of this study were not supportive of the research hypothesis. There were no significant correlations found between any of the five separate swatches and any of the five dimensions and the facet of extroversion. There was a high degree of variability in  the colour swatch responses and in the personality items. For section one, responses displayed a particularly preference for the colours blue and yellow. Finally, the results of the inter-swatch correlations displayed significant positive correlations between the swatches red, blue, green, and yellow. The colour grey was an interesting anomaly of the study. Grey was not chosen by any of the sample as their colour preference in section one. Grey- as a swatch in section two, was interesting in that it scored the lowest mean of the five swatches. Thirdly, grey swatch did not correlate well with any of the other swatches in the inter-swatch correlations. The reason for this anomaly is unclear. Respondents made quite clear their thoughts about how they came to make their colour preferences. Visualisation, choosing colours that made them feel happy, and instinct were all noted as criteria and methods used in forming a preference from the options available. One aspect came to the foreground frequently, emotion – how the respondent felt, was central to how they chose their preference. This aspect is one which merits further study in its own right. If the basic premise of current personality theory holds true – that an extrovert will seek more stimulation than an introverted person would, then this studies hypothesis deserves some more attention. The respondents of this study clearly felt colour to have a psychological effect on their mood, and such remarks are worth further investigation. With only a few studies on colour preference, it is difficult to make any firm conclusions about this studies results.        

   In conclusion, although no significant correlation was apparent between colour preference and personality, the significant results of the inter-swatch correlations provide the basis for further research. The reports from respondents on how they came to form their colour preferences, offer some very interesting avenues to further this much overlooked and neglected aspect of personality.  The next research step would centre on presenting the coloured swatches on a computer screen. With better differentiation between illumination boxes, and targeting people who score either particularly high or low on the dimension of extroversion, a link between personality and colour preference might be discerned.

References

Basu, M. N. (1949). Possibility of a racial significance of colour preference. Eastern Anthropologist, 2

  (3), 160-161.

Davidoff, J. (1999). Colour and Culture. Nature, 398, 203.

Dawkins, R. (1998). Unweaving the Rainbow. Middlesex: Allen Lane The Penguin Press.

Dornfeld, R. (1982). Colour Preference and the level of anxiety. Roczniki-Filozoficzne Psychologia,

  30 (4), 61-72.

Eysenck, H. J. (1973). Personality and the law of effects of psychotherapy. In D.E. Berlyne & K. B.

  Madsen (Eds.), Pleasure, reward, preference. New York: Academic Press.

Goldberg, L. R. (1999). International Personality Item Pool: A Scientific Collaboratory for the

  Development of Advanced Measures of Personality and Other Individual Differences. (see URL

  http://ipip.ori.org/ipip/ ).

Hubel, D. H. (1995). Eye, Brain, And Vision. New York: Scientific American Library

John, O. P. (1990). The big-five factor taxonomy: Dimensions of personality in the natural

  language and questionnaires. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of Personality: Theory and

  Research (pp. 66-100). New York: Guildford Press. In Mischel, W. (1993). Introduction To

  Personality (Fifth Edition). London: Harcourt Brace & Company.

Krishna, K. P. (1972). Colour Preference as a function of age and sex. Journal of the Indian Academy

  of Applied Psychology, 9 (1), 10-13.

Logothetis, N. K. (1999). Vision: A Window on Consciousness. Scientific American, 281 (5), 44-51.

Lüscher, M. (1949).La couleur, moyen auxiliaire de psychodiagnostic. In Le diagnostic du caractère.

  Presses Universitaires de France

Lüscher, M. (1969). The Lüscher Colour Test. (Translated and Edited by Ian A. Scott),

  London: Jonathan Cape Ltd.

Mischel, W. (1993). Introduction To Personality (Fifth Edition). London: Harcourt Brace &

  Company.

Motluk, A. (1999). Hue and Cry. New Scientist, 161 (2178), 7.

Rosch, E. (1972). Natural Categories. Cognitive Psychology, 4 (3), 328-350.

Sacks, O. W. (1995). An Anthropologist on Mars. London: Picador.

Shiffman, H. R. (1996). Sensation and Perception: An Integrated Approach (Fourth Edition).

  Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, INC.

Sinha, L. N., & Krishna, K. P. (1980). Subject object relationship in colour preference. Journal of

  Psychological Researches, 24 (3), 166-168.

Sinha, L. N., Krishna, K. P., & Sinha, J. K. (1970). Sex differences in colour preference of

  adolescents. Manas, 17 (1), 17-20.